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The factory closed last year

  • 1 ♦ close

    ♦ close (1) /kləʊs/
    A a.
    1 vicino; ravvicinato: The school is close to the church, la scuola è vicina alla chiesa; at close range, a distanza ravvicinata; close escort, scorta ravvicinata; close by, vicino; nelle vicinanze
    2 stretto; prossimo: close collaboration, stretta collaborazione; in close touch with, a stretto contatto con; to have close links with, avere stretti legami con NOTA D'USO: - strict o close?-
    3 fitto; serrato; compatto: close weave, trama fitta; close print, caratteri fitti; close stitches, punti fitti; (mil.) close ranks, ranghi serrati; close reasoning, ragionamenti serrati
    4 combattuto fino all'ultimo; serrato; vinto di stretta misura: close contest, gara serrata; lotta serrata ( in un'elezione, ecc.); close victory, vittoria di stretta misura; ( sport) close finish, finale sul filo di lana
    5 intimo; stretto; vicino; legato; unito: close friend, amico intimo; close relatives, parenti stretti; parenti prossimi; close adviser, consigliere particolare; The two brothers are very close, i due fratelli sono molto legati; We've always been very close, siamo sempre stati molto amici
    6 accurato; preciso; serrato: close examination, esame accurato; close inspection, controllo attento; close questioning, interrogatorio serrato; to pay close attention to, fare molta attenzione a; to keep a close eye on st., tenere d'occhio attentamente qc.; stare bene attento a qc.; to keep a close watch on sb., fare buona guardia a q.
    7 molto simile all'originale; fedele; accurato; scrupoloso: close resemblance, stretta (o forte) somiglianza; close translation, traduzione aderente all'originale; They are a close match, sono molto simili
    8 riservato; abbottonato (fam.): close character, carattere riservato; He's very close about his trips, è molto riservato sui (o non parla mai dei) suoi viaggi
    9 ben custodito; segreto; celato: a close secret, un segreto ben custodito; to keep st. close, tenere qc. celato, segreto
    10 afoso; soffocante; poco arieggiato: close weather, tempo afoso; It is very close in here, manca l'aria qui dentro; close smell, odore di chiuso
    11 (fon.) chiuso: a close vowel, una vocale chiusa
    12 (= close-fisted) avaro; taccagno; tirchio
    B avv.
    vicino; accanto; dappresso: Don't come too close, non avvicinarti troppo; non venirmi vicino; The exams are getting close, gli esami si avvicinano; to draw close, avvicinarsi; approssimarsi; close behind us, subito dietro di noi; to follow close behind, venire subito dietro; seguire dappresso; We live close to the stadium, abitiamo vicino allo stadio; We were close to victory, eravamo vicini alla vittoria; She was close to tears, stava per piangere; to come close to perfection, avvicinarsi alla perfezione
    ● close at hand, a portata di mano; vicino □ (fam.) a close call (o thing) = close shave ► sotto □ (mil.) close combat, combattimento ravvicinato □ (fin.) close company, società controllata dai suoi direttori o a ristretta partecipazione azionaria ( non più di cinque soci) □ close confinement, segregazione cellulare □ (fin., USA) close corporation = close company ► sopra □ ( d'erba, di capelli) close-cropped (o close-cut), tagliato raso; rasato □ close custody, rigorosa custodia, segregazione ( di un detenuto) □ (comm.) close-cut price, prezzo ristrettissimo □ close enough, piuttosto vicino; più o meno □ ( sport) close finish, arrivo serrato; arrivo in gruppo □ close-fisted, spilorcio; avaro; tirchio □ close-fistedness, avarizia; tirchieria □ ( d'abito) close-fitting, aderente; attillato □ (aeron.) close formation, formazione chiusa □ ( di legno, ecc.) close-grained, a grana fitta; a struttura compatta □ (naut.) close-hauled, di bolina stretta □ close-in, a distanza ravvicinata; ( anche, USA) vicino al centro □ ( di comunità, famiglia, ecc.) close-knit, compatto, molto unito □ ( sport) close marking, marcatura stretta □ ( di rete) close-meshed, a maglie fitte □ close-mouthed (o close-lipped), reticente; riservato □ close on ( seguito da numero), quasi: close on ten hours, quasi dieci ore □ close quarters, stretta vicinanza: at close quarters, dappresso; da vicino; in close quarters, in uno spazio ristretto; gomito a gomito; (mil.) to come to close quarters, venire in contatto ( col nemico) □ ( di gara, elezione, ecc.) close-run, combattuto fino in fondo; molto tirato; vinto (o perso) di stretta misura □ close season, stagione in cui la caccia e la pesca sono chiuse □ close-set, molto accostati, molto vicini: close-set eyes, occhi molto accostati □ a close shave, una rasatura a fondo; (fig. fam.) rischio evitato per un soffio (o per un pelo): I wasn't hit, but it was a close shave, non sono stato colpito, ma solo per un pelo; We've had a close shave, l'abbiamo scampata bella □ close-spaced = close-set ► sopra □ (stor.) close-stool, comoda □ close to, quasi; ( anche) da vicino, dappresso, a distanza ravvicinata: close to £1,000, quasi mille sterline; seen from close to, visto da vicino □ close to sb. 's heart, che sta molto a cuore di q. □ (fig.) close to home, spiacevolmente vero; che tocca sul vivo; che brucia □ close to the wind, (naut.) serrando il vento; (fig.) sul filo del rasoio, al margine della legalità □ close up, vicino; da vicino □ to come close to doing st., essere lì lì per fare qc.: I came close to slapping her in the face, fui lì lì per schiaffeggiarla □ (mil.) in close order, in ordine chiuso □ (fam.) That was close!, c'è mancato un pelo! □ too close for comfort, un po' troppo vicino; pericolosamente vicino; che tocca troppo da vicino □ ( slang USA) Close, but no cigar!, ci sei quasi!; ci sei andato vicino!
    close (2) (def. 1 /kləʊs/, def. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 e 8 /kləʊz/)
    n.
    1 chiuso; recinto; terreno cintato ( intorno a una cattedrale, una scuola, ecc.)
    2 chiusa, conclusione ( di lettera, discorso, ecc.)
    3 chiusura; fine; termine; stretta finale ( nelle trattative, ecc.): to draw to a close, giungere al termine; finire; There will be a collection at the close of the meeting, ci sarà una colletta alla fine della riunione; to come (o to draw) to a close, giungere al termine; finire
    4 (leg.) podere (o fondo) recintato
    6 (fin. = close of business) chiusura ( alla Borsa Valori): at the close, in chiusura; to go down at the close, chiudere al ribasso; to go up at the close, chiudere al rialzo; Tin shares strengthened at the close, le azioni dello stagno hanno chiuso in rialzo
    8 (mus.) finale.
    ♦ (to) close /kləʊz/
    A v. t.
    1 chiudere; serrare: to close the door [a book, one's mouth], chiudere la porta [un libro, la bocca]; ( banca, rag.) to close an account, chiudere un conto; (elettr.) to close a circuit, chiudere un circuito; to close one's days, chiudere la vita; morire
    2 chiudere; tappare: to close one's ears, tapparsi le orecchie
    3 concludere; portare a termine; chiudere: to close a deal, concludere un affare; to close a meeting, chiudere una riunione; togliere una seduta; (leg.) to close the sitting, togliere l'udienza
    5 (comput.) chiudere
    B v. i.
    1 chiudersi; serrarsi: The window closed, la finestra si chiuse
    2 chiudere: The office closes at 12 A.M., l'ufficio chiude alle 12; The factory closed last year, la fabbrica ha chiuso l'anno scorso
    3 giungere al termine; finire; chiudere: The meeting closed at eight o'clock, la riunione è finita alle otto; I will close with an anecdote, chiuderò con un aneddoto
    4 (fin.) chiudere, quotare in chiusura ( alla Borsa Valori): Our shares closed at £10, le azioni in nostro possesso hanno chiuso a dieci sterline
    5 (ipp.) rimontare; farsi sotto
    ● (leg.) to close a bankruptcy, chiudere un fallimento □ ( banca) to close doors, chiudere gli sportelli □ to close a gap ► gap □ ( Borsa, fin.) to close a position, pareggiare □ (mil.) Close right!, serrare a destra! □ (naut.) to close the wind, serrare il vento.

    English-Italian dictionary > ♦ close

  • 2 close

    Ⅰ.
    close1 [kləʊs]
    proche ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (b), 1 (f) serré ⇒ 1 (d), 1 (g) attentif ⇒ 1 (e) mal aéré ⇒ 1 (h) près ⇒ 1 (a), 2 (a) étroitement ⇒ 2 (b)
    (compar closer, superl closest)
    ∎ the library is close to the school la bibliothèque est près ou proche de l'école;
    ∎ in close proximity to sth dans le voisinage immédiat de ou tout près de qch;
    ∎ they're very close in age ils ont presque le même âge;
    ∎ his death brought the war closer to home c'est avec sa mort que nous avons vraiment pris conscience de la guerre;
    ∎ we are close to an agreement nous sommes presque arrivés à un accord;
    ∎ at close intervals à intervalles rapprochés;
    ∎ I saw him at close quarters je l'ai vu de près;
    ∎ at close range à bout portant;
    ∎ to be close at or to hand (shop, cinema etc) être tout près; (book, pencil etc) être à portée de main;
    ∎ to be close to tears être au bord des larmes;
    ∎ to be (very) close to victory être (tout) près de la victoire;
    ∎ familiar I came close to thumping him one j'ai bien failli lui en coller une;
    ∎ he keeps things close to his chest il ne fait guère de confidences;
    ∎ to see sth at close quarters voir qch de près;
    ∎ to give sb a close shave raser qn de près;
    ∎ familiar that was a close shave or American call! on l'a échappé belle!, on a eu chaud!;
    ∎ the bill was passed but it was a close thing la loi a été votée de justesse;
    ∎ they're very close (friends) ils sont très proches;
    ∎ he's a close friend of mine c'est un ami intime;
    ∎ a close relative un parent proche;
    ∎ I'm very close to my sister je suis très proche de ma sœur;
    ∎ he has close ties with Israel il a des rapports étroits avec Israël;
    ∎ there's a close connection between the two things il y a un rapport étroit entre les deux;
    ∎ the President consulted his closest advisers le président consulta ses conseillers les plus proches;
    ∎ sources close to the royal family des sources proches de la famille royale;
    ∎ a subject close to my heart un sujet qui me tient à cœur;
    ∎ to keep sth a close secret garder le secret absolu sur qch
    ∎ they stay in close contact ils restent en contact en permanence
    (d) (in competition, race etc) serré; (election) vivement serré;
    ∎ it was a close contest ce fut une lutte serrée;
    ∎ to play a close game jouer serré;
    ∎ close finish arrivée f serrée
    (e) (thorough, careful) attentif, rigoureux;
    ∎ pay close attention to what she says faites très attention ou prêtez une grande attention à ce qu'elle dit;
    ∎ have a close look at these figures examinez ces chiffres de près;
    ∎ upon close examination après un examen détaillé ou minutieux;
    ∎ to keep (a) close watch or eye on sb/sth surveiller qn/qch de près;
    ∎ I keep close control of the expenses je contrôle étroitement les dépenses;
    ∎ in close confinement en détention surveillée
    ∎ his version of events was close to the truth sa version des faits était très proche de la réalité;
    ∎ he bears a close resemblance to his father il ressemble beaucoup à son père;
    ∎ it's the closest thing we've got to an operating theatre voilà à quoi se réduit notre salle d'opération
    (g) (compact → handwriting, print) serré; (→ grain) dense, compact;
    ∎ Military in close formation en ordre serré
    (h) British (stuffy → room) mal aéré, qui manque de ventilation ou d'air;
    ∎ it's very close in here on manque vraiment d'air ici;
    ∎ it's terribly close today il fait très lourd aujourd'hui
    (i) (secretive) renfermé, peu communicatif;
    ∎ he's very close about his private life il est très discret sur sa vie privée
    (j) familiar (miserly) pingre, radin
    (a) (near) près;
    ∎ don't come too close n'approche pas ou ne t'approche pas trop;
    ∎ I live close to the river j'habite près de la rivière;
    ∎ did you win? - no, we didn't even come close avez-vous gagné? - non, loin de là;
    ∎ she came close to losing her job elle a failli perdre son emploi;
    ∎ to come close to death frôler la mort;
    ∎ to come close to the world record frôler le record du monde;
    ∎ they walked close behind us ils nous suivaient de près;
    ∎ she lives close by elle habite tout près;
    ∎ I looked at it close to or up je l'ai regardé de près;
    ∎ close together serrés les uns contre les autres;
    ∎ sit closer together! serrez-vous!;
    ∎ it's brought us closer ça nous a rapprochés
    (b) (tight) étroitement, de près;
    ∎ he held me close il m'a serré dans ses bras
    3 noun
    (a) (field) clos m
    (b) British (street) impasse f
    (d) Scottish = passage conduisant de la rue à une cour ou à un immeuble en retrait
    ∎ it's close on nine o'clock il est presque neuf heures;
    ∎ she must be close on fifty elle doit friser la cinquantaine ou doit avoir près de cinquante ans
    (almost, nearly) presque;
    ∎ the baby weighs close to 7 pounds ≃ le bébé pèse presque 3 kilos et demi
    ►► Military close combat corps à corps m;
    Music close harmony tessiture f limitée
    ✾ Film 'Close Encounters of the Third Kind' Spielberg 'Rencontres du troisième type'
    Ⅱ.
    close2 [kləʊz]
    fermer ⇒ 1 (a)-(d), 1 (j), 2 (a) conclure ⇒ 1 (e), 1 (h) arrêter ⇒ 1 (f) liquider ⇒ 1 (g) se refermer ⇒ 2 (b) se terminer ⇒ 2 (d) clôturer ⇒ 2 (e) fin, conclusion ⇒ 3
    (a) (shut → door, window, shop, book) fermer;
    ∎ he closed his eyes and went to sleep il ferma les yeux et s'endormit;
    ∎ figurative the committee had not closed the books on the inquiry le comité n'avait pas refermé le dossier de l'affaire;
    ∎ to close one's eyes to sth fermer les yeux sur qch;
    ∎ to close one's mind to sth refuser de penser à qch;
    ∎ she closed her mind to anything new elle s'est fermée à tout ce qui était neuf
    (b) (opening, bottle) fermer, boucher;
    ∎ figurative we must close the gap between the rich and the poor nous devons combler le fossé entre riches et pauvres
    (c) (block → border, road) fermer;
    ∎ they've closed the airport ils ont fermé l'aéroport;
    ∎ a road closed to motor traffic une route interdite à la circulation automobile
    (d) (shut down → factory) fermer;
    ∎ they plan to close more rural stations ils ont l'intention de fermer d'autres petites gares de campagne
    (e) (conclude → matter) conclure, terminer; (→ meeting, session) lever, clore; (→ debate) fermer;
    ∎ she closed the conference with a rallying call to the party faithful elle termina la conférence en lançant un appel de solidarité aux fidèles du parti;
    ∎ a neat way of closing the discussion un habile moyen de clore la discussion;
    ∎ the subject is now closed l'affaire est close
    (f) Commerce & Finance (account) arrêter, clore;
    ∎ to close the books balancer les comptes, régler les livres;
    ∎ to close the yearly accounts arrêter les comptes de l'exercice
    (h) (settle → deal) conclure;
    ∎ we closed a deal with them last week nous avons conclu un accord avec eux la semaine dernière
    (i) (move closer together) serrer, rapprocher;
    ∎ Military close ranks! serrez les rangs!;
    ∎ figurative the party closed ranks behind their leader le parti a serré les rangs derrière le leader
    (a) (shut → gate, window) fermer, se fermer; (→ shop) fermer; (→ cinema, theatre) faire relâche;
    ∎ this window doesn't close properly cette fenêtre ne ferme pas bien ou ferme mal;
    ∎ the door closed quietly behind them la porte s'est refermée sans bruit derrière eux;
    ∎ the bakery closes on Fridays la boulangerie ferme le vendredi
    (b) (wound, opening) se refermer;
    ∎ the gap was closing fast l'écart diminuait rapidement
    (c) (cover, surround)
    ∎ the waves closed over him les vagues se refermèrent sur lui;
    ∎ the onlookers closed around us un cercle de curieux se forma autour de nous;
    ∎ my fingers closed around the gun mes doigts se resserrèrent sur le revolver
    (d) (meeting) se terminer, prendre fin; (speaker) terminer, finir;
    ∎ I closed with a reference to Rimbaud j'ai terminé par une référence à Rimbaud
    (e) Stock Exchange clôturer;
    ∎ the shares closed at 420p les actions ont clôturé ou terminé à 420 pence;
    ∎ the share index closed two points down l'indice (boursier) a clôturé en baisse de deux points
    3 noun
    fin f, conclusion f; (of day) tombée f; Stock Exchange (on financial futures market) clôture f; (closing price) cours m de clôture;
    ∎ at close of business à la ou en clôture;
    ∎ the concert came to a close le concert s'acheva;
    ∎ the year drew to a close l'année s'acheva;
    ∎ it's time to draw the meeting to a close il est temps de mettre fin à cette réunion;
    ∎ towards the close of the century vers la fin du siècle;
    ∎ at close of play (in cricket) à la fin du match
    ►► Computing close box case f de fermeture;
    British close season Hunting fermeture f de la chasse; Fishing fermeture f de la pêche; Football intersaison f
    (a) (business, factory) fermer;
    ∎ the shop had to close down le magasin a dû fermer
    (b) British Television & Radio terminer les émissions
    (business, factory) fermer;
    ∎ they had to close down their shop ils ont dû fermer leur magasin
    (a) (approach) approcher, se rapprocher; (encircle) cerner de près;
    ∎ to close in on or upon se rapprocher de;
    ∎ the hunters closed in on their prey les chasseurs se rapprochèrent de leur proie;
    ∎ the police/his creditors are closing in l'étau de la police/de ses créanciers se resserre
    (b) (evening, night) approcher, descendre; (day) raccourcir; (darkness, fog) descendre;
    ∎ darkness closed in on us la nuit nous enveloppa
    isoler, fermer;
    ∎ the area was closed off to the public le quartier était fermé au public;
    ∎ some of the rooms in the house have been closed off certaines pièces de la maison ont été fermées;
    ∎ Accountancy to close off an account arrêter un compte
    se rapprocher de;
    ∎ we were closing on them fast nous nous rapprochions d'eux rapidement
    (a) American (factory, shop, business) liquider (avant fermeture)
    (b) (complete successfully → game, competition) remporter;
    ∎ to close it out l'emporter
    ∎ to close a position boucler ou clore ou fermer une position
    (a) (seal) fermer; (opening, pipe) obturer, boucher; (wound) refermer, recoudre
    (c) (shop, house) fermer
    (a) (wound) se refermer
    (b) (shopkeeper) fermer
    (a) (finalize deal with) conclure un marché avec
    (b) literary (fight with) engager la lutte ou le combat avec

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > close

  • 3 shut down

    (of a factory etc) to close or be closed, for a time or permanently: There is a rumour going round that the factory is going to (be) shut down (noun shut-down) cerrar, apagar, clausurar
    v.
    • apagar v.
    • cerrar v.
    1) v + adv \<\<factory/business\>\> cerrar*; \<\<machinery\>\> apagarse*, desconectarse
    2) v + o + adv, v + adv + o \<\<factory/business\>\> cerrar*; \<\<machinery\>\> apagar*, desconectar
    1.
    VI + ADV cerrarse
    2.
    VT + ADV [+ lid, business, factory] cerrar; [+ machine] apagar; (by law) clausurar
    * * *
    1) v + adv \<\<factory/business\>\> cerrar*; \<\<machinery\>\> apagarse*, desconectarse
    2) v + o + adv, v + adv + o \<\<factory/business\>\> cerrar*; \<\<machinery\>\> apagar*, desconectar

    English-spanish dictionary > shut down

  • 4 shut down

    shut down [ business] chiudere; [ machinery] fermarsi; shut [sth.] down, shut down [sth.] chiudere [ business]; fermare, arrestare [ machinery]
    * * *
    (of a factory etc) to close or be closed, for a time or permanently: There is a rumour going round that the factory is going to (be) shut down (noun shut-down) chiudere; chiusura
    * * *
    1. vi + adv
    (factory, shop) chiudere i battenti
    2. vt + adv
    (factory, shop) chiudere, (machine) fermare, (nuclear reactor) ridurre al minimo
    * * *
    shut down [ business] chiudere; [ machinery] fermarsi; shut [sth.] down, shut down [sth.] chiudere [ business]; fermare, arrestare [ machinery]

    English-Italian dictionary > shut down

  • 5 Chronology

      15,000-3,000 BCE Paleolithic cultures in western Portugal.
      400-200 BCE Greek and Carthaginian trade settlements on coast.
      202 BCE Roman armies invade ancient Lusitania.
      137 BCE Intensive Romanization of Lusitania begins.
      410 CE Germanic tribes — Suevi and Visigoths—begin conquest of Roman Lusitania and Galicia.
      714—16 Muslims begin conquest of Visigothic Lusitania.
      1034 Christian Reconquest frontier reaches Mondego River.
      1064 Christians conquer Coimbra.
      1139 Burgundian Count Afonso Henriques proclaims himself king of Portugal; birth of Portugal. Battle of Ourique: Afonso Henriques defeats Muslims.
      1147 With English Crusaders' help, Portuguese seize Lisbon from Muslims.
      1179 Papacy formally recognizes Portugal's independence (Pope Alexander III).
      1226 Campaign to reclaim Alentejo from Muslims begins.
      1249 Last Muslim city (Silves) falls to Portuguese Army.
      1381 Beginning of third war between Castile and Portugal.
      1383 Master of Aviz, João, proclaimed regent by Lisbon populace.
      1385 April: Master of Aviz, João I, proclaimed king of Portugal by Cortes of Coimbra. 14 August: Battle of Aljubarrota, Castilians defeated by royal forces, with assistance of English army.
      1394 Birth of "Prince Henry the Navigator," son of King João I.
      1415 Beginning of overseas expansion as Portugal captures Moroccan city of Ceuta.
      1419 Discovery of Madeira Islands.
      1425-28 Prince D. Pedro, older brother of Prince Henry, travels in Europe.
      1427 Discovery (or rediscovery?) of Azores Islands.
      1434 Prince Henry the Navigator's ships pass beyond Cape Bojador, West Africa.
      1437 Disaster at Tangier, Morocco, as Portuguese fail to capture city.
      1441 First African slaves from western Africa reach Portugal.
      1460 Death of Prince Henry. Portuguese reach what is now Senegal, West Africa.
      1470s Portuguese explore West African coast and reach what is now Ghana and Nigeria and begin colonizing islands of São Tomé and Príncipe.
      1479 Treaty of Alcáçovas between kings of Portugal and Spain.
      1482 Portuguese establish post at São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (now Ghana).
      1482-83 Portuguese navigator Diogo Cão reaches mouth of Congo River and Angola.
      1488 Navigator Bartolomeu Dias rounds Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and finds route to Indian Ocean.
      1492-93 Columbus's first voyage to West Indies.
      1493 Columbus visits Azores and Portugal on return from first voyage; tells of discovery of New World. Treaty of Tordesillas signed between kings of Portugal and Spain: delimits spheres of conquest with line 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands (claimed by Portugal); Portugal's sphere to east of line includes, in effect, Brazil.
       King Manuel I and Royal Council decide to continue seeking all-water route around Africa to Asia.
       King Manuel I expels unconverted Jews from Portugal.
      1497-99 Epic voyage of Vasco da Gama from Portugal around Africa to west India, successful completion of sea route to Asia project; da Gama returns to Portugal with samples of Asian spices.
      1500 Bound for India, Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral "discovers" coast of Brazil and claims it for Portugal.
      1506 Anti-Jewish riots in Lisbon.
       Battle of Diu, India; Portugal's command of Indian Ocean assured for some time with Francisco de Almeida's naval victory over Egyptian and Gujerati fleets.
       Afonso de Albuquerque conquers Goa, India; beginning of Portuguese hegemony in south Asia.
       Portuguese conquest of Malacca; commerce in Spice Islands.
      1519 Magellan begins circumnavigation voyage.
      1536 Inquisition begins in Portugal.
      1543 Portuguese merchants reach Japan.
      1557 Portuguese merchants granted Chinese territory of Macau for trading factory.
      1572 Luís de Camões publishes epic poem, Os Lusíadas.
      1578 Battle of Alcácer-Quivir; Moroccan forces defeat army of King Sebastião of Portugal; King Sebastião dies in battle. Portuguese succession crisis.
      1580 King Phillip II of Spain claims and conquers Portugal; Spanish rule of Portugal, 1580-1640.
      1607-24 Dutch conquer sections of Asia and Brazil formerly held by Portugal.
      1640 1 December: Portuguese revolution in Lisbon overthrows Spanish rule, restores independence. Beginning of Portugal's Braganza royal dynasty.
      1654 Following Dutch invasions and conquest of parts of Brazil and Angola, Dutch expelled by force.
      1661 Anglo-Portuguese Alliance treaty signed: England pledges to defend Portugal "as if it were England itself." Queen Catherine of Bra-ganza marries England's Charles II.
      1668 February: In Portuguese-Spanish peace treaty, Spain recognizes independence of Portugal, thus ending 28-year War of Restoration.
      1703 Methuen Treaties signed, key commercial trade agreement and defense treaty between England and Portugal.
      1750 Pombal becomes chief minister of King José I.
      1755 1 November: Massive Lisbon earthquake, tidal wave, and fire.
      1759 Expulsion of Jesuits from Portugal and colonies.
      1761 Slavery abolished in continental Portugal.
      1769 Abandonment of Mazagão, Morocco, last Portuguese outpost.
      1777 Pombal dismissed as chief minister by Queen Maria I, after death of José I.
      1791 Portugal and United States establish full diplomatic relations.
      1807 November: First Napoleonic invasion; French forces under Junot conquer Portugal. Royal family flees to colony of Brazil and remains there until 1821.
      1809 Second French invasion of Portugal under General Soult.
      1811 Third French invasion of Portugal under General Masséna.
      1813 Following British general Wellington's military victories, French forces evacuate Portugal.
      1817 Liberal, constitutional movements against absolutist monarchist rule break out in Brazil (Pernambuco) and Portugal (Lisbon, under General Gomes Freire); crushed by government. British marshal of Portugal's army, Beresford, rules Portugal.
       Liberal insurrection in army officer corps breaks out in Cadiz, Spain, and influences similar movement in Portugal's armed forces first in Oporto.
       King João VI returns from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and early draft of constitution; era of constitutional monarchy begins.
      1822 7 September: João VI's son Pedro proclaims independence of
       Brazil from Portugal and is named emperor. 23 September: Constitution of 1822 ratified.
       Portugal recognizes sovereign independence of Brazil.
       King João VI dies; power struggle for throne ensues between his sons, brothers Pedro and Miguel; Pedro, emperor of Brazil, abdicates Portuguese throne in favor of his daughter, D. Maria II, too young to assume crown. By agreement, Miguel, uncle of D. Maria, is to accept constitution and rule in her stead.
      1828 Miguel takes throne and abolishes constitution. Sections of Portugal rebel against Miguelite rule.
      1831 Emperor Pedro abdicates throne of Brazil and returns to Portugal to expel King Miguel from Portuguese throne.
      1832-34 Civil war between absolutist King Miguel and constitutionalist Pedro, who abandons throne of Brazil to restore his young daughter Maria to throne of Portugal; Miguel's armed forces defeated by those of Pedro. Miguel leaves for exile and constitution (1826 Charter) is restored.
      1834-53 Constitutional monarchy consolidated under rule of Queen Maria II, who dies in 1853.
      1851-71 Regeneration period of economic development and political stability; public works projects sponsored by Minister Fontes Pereira de Melo.
      1871-90 Rotativism period of alternating party governments; achieves political stability and less military intervention in politics and government. Expansion of colonial territory in tropical Africa.
       January: Following territorial dispute in central Africa, Britain delivers "Ultimatum" to Portugal demanding withdrawal of Portugal's forces from what is now Malawi and Zimbabwe. Portugal's government, humiliated in accepting demand under threat of a diplomatic break, falls. Beginning of governmental and political instability; monarchist decline and republicanism's rise.
       Anglo-Portuguese treaties signed relating to delimitation of frontiers in colonial Africa.
      1899 Treaty of Windsor; renewal of Anglo-Portuguese defense and friendship alliance.
      1903 Triumphal visit of King Edward VII to Portugal.
      1906 Politician João Franco supported by King Carlos I in dictatorship to restore order and reform.
      1908 1 February: Murder in Lisbon of King Carlos I and his heir apparent, Prince Dom Luís, by Portuguese anarchists. Eighteen-year-old King Manuel II assumes throne.
      1910 3-5 October: Following republican-led military insurrection in armed forces, monarchy falls and first Portuguese republic is proclaimed. Beginning of unstable, economically troubled, parliamentary republic form of government.
       May: Violent insurrection in Lisbon overturns government of General Pimenta de Castro; nearly a thousand casualties from several days of armed combat in capital.
       March: Following Portugal's honoring ally Britain's request to confiscate German shipping in Portuguese harbors, Germany declares war on Portugal; Portugal enters World War I on Allied side.
       Portugal organizes and dispatches Portuguese Expeditionary Corps to fight on the Western Front. 9 April: Portuguese forces mauled by German offensive in Battle of Lys. Food rationing and riots in Lisbon. Portuguese military operations in Mozambique against German expedition's invasion from German East Africa. 5 December: Authoritarian, presidentialist government under Major Sidónio Pais takes power in Lisbon, following a successful military coup.
      1918 11 November: Armistice brings cessation of hostilities on Western Front in World War I. Portuguese expeditionary forces stationed in Angola, Mozambique, and Flanders begin return trip to Portugal. 14 December: President Sidónio Pais assassinated. Chaotic period of ephemeral civil war ensues.
      1919-21 Excessively unstable political period, including January
      1919 abortive effort of Portuguese monarchists to restore Braganza dynasty to power. Republican forces prevail, but level of public violence, economic distress, and deprivation remains high.
      1921 October: Political violence attains peak with murder of former prime minister and other prominent political figures in Lisbon. Sectors of armed forces and Guarda Nacional Republicana are mutinous. Year of financial and corruption scandals, including Portuguese bank note (fraud) case; military court acquits guilty military insurrectionists, and one military judge declares "the country is sick."
       28 May: Republic overthrown by military coup or pronunciamento and conspiracy among officer corps. Parliament's doors locked and parliament closed for nearly nine years to January 1935. End of parliamentary republic, Western Europe's most unstable political system in this century, beginning of the Portuguese dictatorship, after 1930 known as the Estado Novo. Officer corps assumes reins of government, initiates military censorship of the press, and suppresses opposition.
       February: Military dictatorship under General Óscar Carmona crushes failed republican armed insurrection in Oporto and Lisbon.
       April: Military dictatorship names Professor Antônio de Oliveira Salazar minister of finance, with dictatorial powers over budget, to stabilize finances and rebuild economy. Insurrectionism among military elements continues into 1931.
      1930 Dr. Salazar named minister for colonies and announces balanced budgets. Salazar consolidates support by various means, including creation of official regime "movement," the National Union. Salazar engineers Colonial Act to ensure Lisbon's control of bankrupt African colonies by means of new fiscal controls and centralization of authority. July: Military dictatorship names Salazar prime minister for first time, and cabinet composition undergoes civilianization; academic colleagues and protégés plan conservative reform and rejuvenation of society, polity, and economy. Regime comes to be called the Estado Novo (New State). New State's constitution ratified by new parliament, the National Assembly; Portugal described in document as "unitary, corporative Republic" and governance influenced by Salazar's stern personality and doctrines such as integralism, Catholicism, and fiscal conservatism.
      1936 Violent instability and ensuing civil war in neighboring Spain, soon internationalized by fascist and communist intervention, shake Estado Novo regime. Pseudofascist period of regime features creation of imitation Fascist institutions to defend regime from leftist threats; Portugal institutes "Portuguese Youth" and "Portuguese Legion."
      1939 3 September: Prime Minister Salazar declares Portugal's neutrality in World War II. October: Anglo-Portuguese agreement grants naval and air base facilities to Britain and later to United States for Battle of the Atlantic and Normandy invasion support. Third Reich protests breach of Portugal's neutrality.
       6 June: On day of Allies' Normandy invasion, Portugal suspends mining and export of wolfram ore to both sides in war.
       8 May: Popular celebrations of Allied victory and Fascist defeat in Lisbon and Oporto coincide with Victory in Europe Day. Following managed elections for Estado Novo's National Assembly in November, regime police, renamed PIDE, with increased powers, represses opposition.
      1947 Abortive military coup in central Portugal easily crushed by regime. Independence of India and initiation of Indian protests against Portuguese colonial rule in Goa and other enclaves.
      1949 Portugal becomes founding member of NATO.
      1951 Portugal alters constitution and renames overseas colonies "Overseas Provinces." Portugal and United States sign military base agreements for use of air and naval facilities in Azores Islands and military aid to Lisbon. President Carmona dies in office, succeeded by General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58). July: Indians occupy enclave of Portuguese India (dependency of Damão) by means of passive resistance movement. August: Indian passive resistance movement in Portuguese India repelled by Portuguese forces with loss of life. December: With U.S. backing, Portugal admitted as member of United Nations (along with Spain). Air force general Humberto Delgado, in opposition, challenges Estado Novo's hand-picked successor to Craveiro Lopes, Admiral Américo Tomás. Delgado rallies coalition of democratic, liberal, and communist opposition but loses rigged election and later flees to exile in Brazil. Portugal joins European Free Trade Association (EFTA).
       January and February: Estado Novo rocked by armed African insurrection in northern Angola, crushed by armed forces. Hijacking of Portuguese ocean liner by ally of Delgado, Captain Henrique Galvão. April: Salazar defeats attempted military coup and reshuffles cabinet with group of younger figures who seek to reform colonial rule and strengthen the regime's image abroad. 18 December: Indian army rapidly defeats Portugal's defense force in Goa, Damão, and Diu and incorporates Portugal's Indian possessions into Indian Union. January: Abortive military coup in Beja, Portugal.
      1965 February: General Delgado and his Brazilian secretary murdered and secretly buried near Spanish frontier by political police, PIDE.
      1968 August and September: Prime Minister Salazar, aged 79, suffers crippling stoke. President Tomás names former cabinet officer Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor. Caetano institutes modest reforms in Portugal and overseas.
      1971 Caetano government ratifies amended constitution that allows slight devolution and autonomy to overseas provinces in Africa and Asia. Right-wing loyalists oppose reforms in Portugal. 25 April: Military coup engineered by Armed Forces Movement overthrows Estado Novo and establishes provisional government emphasizing democratization, development, and decolonization. Limited resistance by loyalists. President Tomás and Premier Caetano flown to exile first in Madeira and then in Brazil. General Spínola appointed president. September: Revolution moves to left, as President Spínola, thwarted in his program, resigns.
       March: Military coup by conservative forces fails, and leftist response includes nationalization of major portion of economy. Polarization between forces and parties of left and right. 25 November: Military coup by moderate military elements thwarts leftist forces. Constituent Assembly prepares constitution. Revolution moves from left to center and then right.
       March: Constitution ratified by Assembly of the Republic. 25 April: Second general legislative election gives largest share of seats to Socialist Party (PS). Former oppositionist lawyer, Mário Soares, elected deputy and named prime minister.
      1977-85 Political pendulum of democratic Portugal moves from center-left to center-right, as Social Democratic Party (PSD) increases hold on assembly and take office under Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. July
      1985 elections give edge to PSD who advocate strong free-enterprise measures and revision of leftist-generated 1976 Constitution, amended modestly in 1982.
      1986 January: Portugal joins European Economic Community (EEC).
      1987 July: General, legislative elections for assembly give more than 50 percent to PSD led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. For first time, since 1974, Portugal has a working majority government.
      1989 June: Following revisions of 1976 Constitution, reprivatization of economy begins, under PS government.
       January: Presidential elections, Mário Soares reelected for second term. July: General, legislative elections for assembly result in new PSD victory and majority government.
       January-July: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Economic Community (EEC). December: Tariff barriers fall as fully integrated Common Market established in the EEC.
       November: Treaty of Maastricht comes into force. The EEC officially becomes the European Union (EU). Portugal is signatory with 11 other member-nations.
       October: General, legislative elections for assembly result in PS victory and naming of Prime Minister Guterres. PS replace PSD as leading political party. November: Excavations for Lisbon bank uncover ancient Phoenician, Roman, and Christian ruins.
       January: General, presidential elections; socialist Jorge Sampaio defeats PSD's Cavaco Silva and assumes presidency from Dr. Mário Soares. July: Community of Portuguese Languages Countries (CPLP) cofounded by Portugal and Brazil.
       May-September: Expo '98 held in Lisbon. Opening of Vasco da Gama Bridge across Tagus River, Europe's longest (17 kilometers/ 11 miles). June: National referendum on abortion law change defeated after low voter turnout. November: National referendum on regionaliza-tion and devolution of power defeated after another low voter turnout.
       October: General, legislative elections: PS victory over PSD lacks clear majority in parliament. Following East Timor referendum, which votes for independence and withdrawal of Indonesia, outburst of popular outrage in streets, media, and communications of Portugal approves armed intervention and administration of United Nations (and withdrawal of Indonesia) in East Timor. Portugal and Indonesia restore diplomatic relations. December: A Special Territory since 1975, Colony of Macau transferred to sovereignty of People's Republic of China.
       January-June: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the EU; end of Discoveries Historical Commemoration Cycle (1988-2000).
       United Nations forces continue to occupy and administer former colony of East Timor, with Portugal's approval.
       January: General, presidential elections; PS president Sampaio reelected for second term. City of Oporto, "European City of Culture" for the year, hosts arts festival. December: Municipal elections: PSD defeats PS; socialist prime minister Guterres resigns; President Sampaio calls March parliamentary elections.
       1 January: Portugal enters single European Currency system. Euro currency adopted and ceases use of former national currency, the escudo. March: Parliamentary elections; PSD defeats PS and José Durão Barroso becomes prime minister. Military modernization law passed. Portugal holds chairmanship of Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
       May: Municipal law passed permitting municipalities to reorganize in new ways.
       June: Prime Minister Durão Barroso, invited to succeed Romano Prodi as president of EU Commission, resigns. Pedro Santana Lopes becomes prime minister. European Parliament elections held. Conscription for national service in army and navy ended. Mass grave uncovered at Academy of Sciences Museum, Lisbon, revealing remains of several thousand victims of Lisbon earthquake, 1755.
       February: Parliamentary elections; PS defeats PSD, socialists win first absolute majority in parliament since 1975. José Sócrates becomes prime minister.
       January: Presidential elections; PSD candidate Aníbal Cavaco Silva elected and assumes presidency from Jorge Sampaio. Portugal's national soccer team ranked 7th out of 205 countries by international soccer association. European Union's Bologna Process in educational reform initiated in Portugal.
       July-December: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Union. For reasons of economy, Portugal announces closure of many consulates, especially in France and the eastern US. Government begins official inspections of private institutions of higher education, following scandals.
      2008 January: Prime Minister Sócrates announces location of new Lisbon area airport as Alcochete, on south bank of Tagus River, site of air force shooting range. February: Portuguese Army begins to receive new modern battle tanks (Leopard 2 A6). March: Mass protest of 85,000 public school (primary and secondary levels) teachers in Lisbon schools dispute recent educational policies of minister of education and prime minister.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Chronology

  • 6 Gropius, Walter Adolf

    [br]
    b. 18 May 1883 Berlin, Germany
    d. 5 July 1969 Boston, USA
    [br]
    German co-founder of the modern movement of architecture.
    [br]
    A year after he began practice as an architect, Gropius was responsible for the pace-setting Fagus shoe-last factory at Alfeld-an-der-Leine in Germany, one of the few of his buildings to survive the Second World War. Today the building does not appear unusual, but in 1911 it was a revolutionary prototype, heralding the glass curtain walled method of non-load-bearing cladding that later became ubiquitous. Made from glass, steel and reinforced concrete, this factory initiated a new concept, that of the International school of modern architecture.
    In 1919 Gropius was appointed to head the new School of Art and Design at Weimar, the Staatliches Bauhaus. The school had been formed by an amalgamation of the Grand Ducal schools of fine and applied arts founded in 1906. Here Gropius put into practice his strongly held views and he was so successful that this small college, which trained only a few hundred students in the limited years of its existence, became world famous, attracting artists, architects and students of quality from all over Europe.
    Gropius's idea was to set up an institution where students of all the arts and crafts could work together and learn from one another. He abhorred the artificial barriers that had come to exist between artists and craftsmen and saw them all as interdependent. He felt that manual dexterity was as essential as creative design. Every Bauhaus student, whatever the individual's field of work or talent, took the same original workshop training. When qualified they were able to understand and supervise all the aesthetic and constructional processes that made up the scope of their work.
    In 1924, because of political changes, the Weimar Bauhaus was closed, but Gropius was invited to go to Dessau to re-establish it in a new purpose-built school which he designed. This group of buildings became a prototype that designers of the new architectural form emulated. Gropius left the Bauhaus in 1928, only a few years before it was finally closed due to the growth of National Socialism. He moved to England in 1934, but because of a lack of architectural opportunities and encouragement he continued on his way to the USA, where he headed the Department of Architecture at Harvard University's Graduate School of Design from 1937 to 1952. After his retirement from there Gropius formed the Architect's Collaborative and, working with other architects such as Marcel Breuer and Pietro Belluschi, designed a number of buildings (for example, the US Embassy in Athens (1960) and the Pan Am Building in New York (1963)).
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1984, Scope of Total Architecture, Allen \& Unwin.
    Further Reading
    N.Pevsner, 1936, Pioneers of the Modern Movement: From William Morris to Walter Gropius, Penguin.
    C.Jenck, 1973, Modern Movements in Architecture, Penguin.
    H.Probst and C.Shädlich, 1988, Walter Gropius, Berlin: Ernst \& Son.
    DY

    Biographical history of technology > Gropius, Walter Adolf

  • 7 Koenig, Friedrich

    SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing
    [br]
    b. 17 April 1774 Eisleben, Thuringia, Germany
    d. 17 January 1833 Oberzell, near Würzburg, Germany
    [br]
    German inventor of the machine printing press.
    [br]
    Koenig became a printer and bookseller. Around 1800 he was among those who conceived the idea of mechanizing the hand printing press, which apart from minor details had survived virtually unchanged through the first three and a half centuries of printing. In 1803, in Sühl, Saxony, he designed a press in which the flat forme, carrying the type, was mechanically inked and passed to and from the platen. Whether this ma-chine was ever constructed is not known, but Koenig found little support for his ideas because of lack of technical and financial resources. So, in 1806, he went to England and was introduced to Thomas Bensley, a book printer off Fleet Street in London. Bensley agreed to support Koenig and brought in two other printers to help finance Koenig's experiments. Another German, Andreas Bauer, an engineer, assisted Koenig and became largely responsible for the practical execution of Koenig's plans.
    In 1810 they patented a press which was steam-driven but still used a platen. It was set to work in Bensley's office the following year but did not prove to be satisfactory. Koenig redesigned it, and in October 1811 he obtained a patent for a steam-driven press on an entirely new principle. In place of the platen, the paper was fixed around a hollow rotating cylinder, which impressed the paper on to the inked forme. In Bensley's office it was used for book printing, but its increased speed over the hand press appealed to newspaper proprietors and John Walter II of The Times asked Koenig to make a double-cylinder machine, so that the return stroke of the forme would be productive. A further patent was taken out in 1813 and the new machine was made ready to print the 29 November 1814 issue—in secrecy, behind closed doors, to forestall opposition from the pressmen working the hand presses. An important feature of the machine was that the inking rollers were not of the traditional leather or skin but a composite material made from glue, molasses and some soda. The inking could not have been achieved satisfactorily with the old materials. The editorial of that historic issue proclaimed, 'Our Journal of this day presents to the public the practical result of the greatest improvement connected with printing, since the discovery of the art itself Koenig's machine press could make 1,200 impressions an hour compared to 200 with the hand press; further improvements raised this figure to 1,500–2,000. Koenig's last English patent was in 1814 for an improved cylinder machine and a perfecting machine, which printed both sides of the paper. The steam-driven perfecting press was printing books in Bensley's office in February 1816. Koenig and Bauer wanted by that time to manufacture machine presses for other customers, but Bensley, now the principal shareholder, insisted that they should make machines for his benefit only. Finding this restriction intolerable, Koenig and Bauer returned to Germany: they became partners in a factory at Oberzell, near Würzburg, in 1817 and the firm of Koenig and Bauer flourishes there to this day.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    J.Moran, 1973, Printing Presses, London: Faber \& Faber.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Koenig, Friedrich

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